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The primer sequences are posted in the supplementary section. Cells were cultured and infected with HSV 1 as described above but plated onto 8 well chamber slides at a density of 104 neurons/chamber. In situ Hybridizationwas performed by adding a mix containing four LAT probes for 5 h at 42 C. LAT specific oligonucleotides were designed against the 2 kb intron Nilotinib region of HSV 1 strain 17, and were synthesized with a fluorescein tag on the 5 end. All subsequent incubations for immunofluorescence were done at RT. Additional details can be found in the supplement. Lentiviruses expressing shRNAs against rat PDK1 and rat PLC? were generated using a pLVTHM vector that included an mCherry expression cassette. SCG cultures were infected with lentivirus for 12 h prior infection with HSV 1. The efficiency of lentiviral infection as judged by mCherry expression was approximately 90%.

The shRNA sequences are posted in the supplementary section. The Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK and Ras/PI3K/PTEN/Akt/ mTOR signaling cascades have been extensively DCC-2036 studied over the past few decades. In this time there have been breakthroughs in the discovery of pathway components, the mechanisms by which they relay their signals and how mutations of these components can lead to aberrant signaling and uncontrolled proliferative diseases. Research has also lead to the development of inhibitors that specifically target critical elements of these pathways in anticipation of ameliorating patient survival. This review will discuss some of the current inhibitors, their targets and how they are being used to treat cancer and other proliferative diseases including aging.

Signaling through the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK and Ras/PI3K/PTEN/Akt/mTOR pathways are carefully orchestrated events generally starting from the cell surface and leading to controlled gene expression within the nucleus. Regulation of these pathways is mediated DCC-2036 by a series of kinases, phosphatases and various exchange proteins. Mutations occur in many of these pathway elements leading to uncontrolled regulation and aberrant signaling. An overview of the effects of mutations and the activation of these signaling pathways is presented in Figure 1. Deregulated signaling can lead to unrestrained cellular growth and proliferation ultimately resulting in tumor formation or abnormal cellular growth and premature aging. As such, a great deal of research has been aimed to target these mutated proteins to prevent abnormal signaling.

Some cancer cells carrying BRAF mutations are highly sensitive to MEK inhibitors, while cells lacking these BRAF mutations or containing RAS or epidermal growth factor receptor mutations are resistant. Increased Akt activity may actually render cells and patients sensitive to Akt as well as downstream mTOR inhibitors. The formation of the rapamycin sensitive mTORC1 complex in certain cancer cells that overexpress activated Akt may be altered in comparison to cells that do not overexpress Akt. In cells that express activated Akt, Akt may phosphorylate TSC 2 resulting in its inactivation. The mTORC1 complex is formed and downstream p70S6K and 4E BP1 are phosphorylated, allowing the dissociation of eIF 4E, ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis.